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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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M. D. Chaturvcdi , C. R. Ranganathan , R. N. Singh , C. M. Chowdhuri , B. Pal , J. Bancrji , D. D. Saigal , V. S. Krishnaswamy , G. S. Lamba

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V. S. Krishnaswamy , R. S. Gupta

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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Some animals cause mechanical damage, some by browsing, some by stripping the barks of trees, some by destroying seeds, seedlings and ischolar_mains, while some cause damage by grazing. Elephants, rhinoceros, bison and' pigs cause mechanical damage to the forests. The first two by damaging the fences erected in forests, facilitate the entrance of other animals into the protected area. Bison also does a similar damage, but pigs cause considerable harm by upischolar_maining seedlings, coppice shoots and seedlings. Trenches have been dug in the forest for affording protection against elephants and pigs. In some places stone walls have also been erected for protection against the latter. Fences and crude country bombs have also been tried against the pigs. Elephants, bisons, sambur and black bears are guilty of stripping the barks of trees. Elephants have a partiality for the bark of the Artocarpus integrifolia, while bison strip the bark of Acrocarpus fraxinifolius. Sambur peels off the bark of Chukrasia in addition. Black bears, strip the bark of many deodar, spruce and kail poles to lick the rising sap and the cambium layer. Elephants, bison, sambur, nilgai and members of the deer family, goats and sheep are guilty of browsing many forest species. While there is no direct remedy against damage by elephants and bisons, the other soft skinned game are kept out by game proof fencing. Live hedges are also tried. As camels, goats and sheep are domestic animals the remedy is to prohibit them from entering the forest. Hares and rats cause considerable destruction of seeds and seedlings and ischolar_mains. Their damage can be minimized either by using poisoned baits or by cyanogassing them or by using wire nets. Grazing probably does more injury to the forest than even fire. The damage done by semi-wild cattle is kept down by capturing and selling them. In some places kheddah operations are also conducted to capture them. To minimize the damage done to the forest by the ordinary grazing cattle is rather difficult as it is closely bound with socio-political considerations. So long as regulation of grazing cannot be enforced, damage from excessive grazing by the domestic cattle cannot be minimized. The damage caused to the forests of India by animals are varied. Some animals cause mechanical damage, some by browsing some by stripping the barks of trees; some by destroying seeds, seedlings and ischolar_mains; while some cause damage by grazing. The nature and extent of damage caused by these animals and the measure taken to counter these, are described in this paper.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy , G. S. Mathauda

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The description and results of a thinning cycle investigation that has been in progress since 1936 in young chir crops at Dehra Dun are given. The thinning cycles under trial are 4, 8 and 12 years, the intensity in all cases being, 'D' grade of ordinary thinnings. The shortest thinning cycle has given maximum diameter increment and largest number of trees in the top diameter classes. Its performance is comparable to that of the 8 years cycle from the view-point of basal area and volume production, while the 12 years cycle has given distinctly poorer results. The treatments have had no influence on height growth and the length of clean bole. The 4 year thinning cycle, therefore, gives maximum diameter increment as well as total volum, without impairing the quality of the timber. The thinning periodicity may be increased to 8 years without adversely affecting total volume production. The investigation also indicates that thinning intensities lighter than the ordinary 'D' grade should be avoided for high quality young chir crops.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy , G. S. Mathauda

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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Small ground flora quadrats, one each, were laid in plantations of Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Pinus longifolia and Dalbergia latifolia at the New Forest and frequencies of almost all the ground vegetation have been recorded over a period of 1928-1949 (in some cases). These data have been examined and an effort has been made to correlate the frequencies of various species with the growth and development of tree species. Although, some correlation seems evident the data, have unfortunately, not been collected clearly enough to bring out exa.ct correlations. These data serve as a guide to lay properly further plots in the area.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy , S. N. Dabral

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With a view to determining the duration of life of stumps (ischolar_main and shoot cuttings) and the circumstances under which their life could be prolonged, certain experiments were carried out in the demonstration area of the Forest Research Institute, with some forest species. According to these experiments, the stumps of Syzygium cumini, Codrota toona, Datbergia sisoo and Bischofia javanica may be stored for over 3 weeks after they are prepared if they are kept moistened with water. If stored dry they remain good for 3 to 4 days only.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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This bulletin describes a series of investigations done at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, on the growing of cover and nurse crops in sal (Shorea robusta) and teak (Tectona grandis) plantations. The investigtions were started to see whether the formation and establishment of sal and teak plantations on exhausted agricultural fields which constituted the estate when it was taken over could be improved and hastened by nurse and cover crops. The experiments lasted from 1927 to 1940. The general conclusions reached are:- 1. None of the species tried prove really efficient as nurse and cover crops for sal at Dehra Dun and it is doubtful whether any are worthwhile - with the possible exception of Leucaena glauca; 2. The following species were successfully raised with sal - Leucaena glauca,Tephrosia candida, Indigofera endecaphylla, Indigofera galegoides and Indigofera tinctoria but none proved successful with teak; 3. The only species that appeared to have any beneficial effect on the growth of sal was Leucaena glauco and even this was doubtful; 4. All species needed intensive weeding to get them established (and their introduction is therefore expensive); 5. Leucaena glauco, Tephrosia candida and Indigofera endecaphylla were all partly successful as weed suppressers, the first named being the most effective, but Leucaena glauco and Tephrosia candida had to be repeatedly cut back in order to prevent them from suppressing the sal in the first few years. But in the case of teak, the growth from stumps, overtopped the nurse crop, Leucaena glauco, very soon. Due to this, the growth of the latter became very irregular and thus was not able to keep down the weeds and grasses; 6. after being partly damaged by frost for the first few years Leucaena glauca, Indigofera endecaphylla and Indigofera galegoides were reasonably efficient as forest nurses for sal; 7.Tephrosia candida was too short-lived and Indigofera endecaphylla too small a plant to be really useful with sal at Dehra Dun. Tephrosia candida raised simultaneously with teak was definitely harmful to the latter; 8. Leucaena glauca can be pruned at almost any height and at any time of the year without adverse results; 9. Tephrosia candida should not be pruned in the later years of its comparatively short life as this merely accelerates its death. It should be pruned early in the year because of its susceptibility to frost damage; 10. Indigofera endecaphylla can be heavily thinned in its third and fourth years without adverse effects; 11. Indigofera galegoides should be pruned early in the year to avoid damage to the new shoots by frost; 12. Indigofera tinctoria apparently will not stand pruning at Dehra Dun; 13. that moisture content in soils from areas with Tephrosia candida as a cover crop in Teak plantations is more reduced than in soils from areas without Tephrosia candida; 14. organic carbon and organic nitrogen are increased in areas with Tephrosia candida used as cover crop with both sal and teak and pH is reduced but not significantly as compared to those in areas without Tephrosia candida; 15. The nitrogen contents seems to be increasing with time on afforestation; 16. nitrogen and nitrogen as nitrates definitely decrease with the increase of the depth of the soil from ground level; 17. Tephrosia candida should be sown 4 to 6 weeks before the break of the monsoon. This early sowing results in slightly better survival per cent and an increase in mean height growth of 95% in the first growing season as compared with sowings made at the break of the rains. Detailed daily meteorological observations were recorded throughout the period of the experiments.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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V. S. Krishnaswamy , S. N. Dabral , Prem Nath

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A study of soil temperatures and humidity was started in the Demonstration area of New Forest, F.R.I. in May I953 with a view to studying the differences in temperatures and humidity due to afforestation as compared to those in open. The interim results drawn from the data collected so far are given under "Conc1usion" at the end.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy

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Calcium ions promote structure in the soil, but if this Calcium is replaced by Sodium ions the structure is lost and the soil becomes colloidal and the rate of infiltration of water into the soil is considerably retarded. This has been observed in respect of Rajputana desert sands. The author suggests that this property might be made use of by the foresters who have to carry out artificial regeneration in well drained soils.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy ¹

Affiliations
1 409 South Lexington Avenue, White Plains, NY 10606, US

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A study of the geological features and the speleological origin of 80 "ancient" caves of India suggests their grouping under five different geological environments and five separate speleological processes. The cave environments are portrayed on a preliminary "Cave and Karst Map of Peninsular India and the Himalaya". A possible pattern of hydrogeological and hydrological research, utilizing the caves located in the carbonate rocks of the Kurnool and Palnad areas of the State of Andhra Pradesh, is outlined, in order to get an insight into the realm of surface water-ground-water interaction and to evaluate the extent of groundwater storage and release from karstic limestone formations. The recently described, volcanogenic karst features of the Deccan basalts of Western Maharashtra, interpreted to be in a zone of lava flows covering an area of 1,20,000 sq. km also includes the locations of all the existing rock-cut caves in Maharashtra that host ancient architectural monuments and works of art. The coincidence of the two features may either be accidental, or, may have a rational explanation. Additional field checking of the photogeologically interpreted lava-Karst features in the cited special zone of Deccan basalts, in order to establish the open or filled nature of the lava karsts, may yield useful clues in this regard. The presence of sub-aerial pseudokarst, in the mantle of the boulder-talus of granite tors that cover the Closepet granites at Hampi in Karnataka and the recent finding of a 3-kilometre-long "river-cave" therein, suggest the need for additional hydrological and hydrogeological studies, for defining the extent of openness of the pseudokarst mantle and the ground-water storage potential of the pseudokarst around the proposed test-sites. These studies would need specially located river gauge-discharge sites to be established temporarily, in the two river basins and the use of ground-water data of existing open wells, in the belt of the Closepet granites extending from the Tungabhadra river valley of the Krishna river basin in the north, to the Arkavathi river valley of the Kaveri river basin in the south, located west of Bangalore. A programme of National Survey of the Cave Wealth of India is suggested, for which, the creation of a Specialist Division within the framework of the existing Federal and State geo-scientific organizations is warranted, along with the opportunities for specialized training in the mountaineering-type of skills needed for handling difficult cave exploration and mapping, both of which need a spirit of adventure for advancing scientific knowledge.

Keywords

Caves, Ancient Caves, Speleological, Exploration, Hydrogeology, Karst, Pseudokarst, Product Storage, Energy Storage.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy ¹

Affiliations
1 409, South Lexington Avenue, White Plains, New York, 10606, US

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V. S. Krishnaswamy ¹, K. R. Raghu Nandan ²

Affiliations
1 409, S.Lexington Ave, White Plains, NY - 10606, US
2 "Venkatadri", 787, 7th Cross, M C Layout, Vijayanagar, Bangalore - 560 040, IN

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The available geological, floral and faunal evidences support the existence of a very cold climate in the Peninsular India during the Pleistocene. Against this background, the middle to late Holocene event of a snowy winter at Panchavati described in the Valmiki Ramayana has been analysed.

The geological evaluation of the existing information indicates a 300 m epeirogenic uplift of the Satpura range and the adjacent areas, during the upper Pleistocene, followed by about 1000 m of orogenic uplift of the Satpura crustal block, bounded by the seismogenic, Moho-Reaching, Narmada and Tapti graben-Faults that were reactivated in the Holocene, as proved by recent geological mapping and geothermal drilling. The uplift may have taken place, either, by sudden displacements, or, by slow, tectonic creep, or, by a combination of both the processes, thereby raising the height of a pre-Existing Satpura range. This probably blocked partly, the route of very cold, arctic type of air-Flows descending from the Himalayan glaciers that had then reached lower elevations of 1000 to 1500 m and, interacting with the moist winds blowing eastwards from the Arabian Sea, thereby giving rise to the snowfall at Panchavati.

The warming up phase of the Quaternary commenced at the end of the Pleistocene glaciation. This continued up to the commencement of the late Holocene, and also caused the gradual recession of the of the snouts of the Himalayan glaciers to higher elevations. This resulted in the cessation of the arctic type of winds coming down to the Peninsula from the Himalayas, thus terminating the snowy winters prevalent earlier.

The astronomical method of dating the Ramayana gives the most probable age of the epic as 2000B.C. and the less probable age of 4000B.C., by traditional (historical and genealogical) methods of dating. The range of the above two ages tallies with the geologically deduced range of age of middle to late Holocene for the palaeoclimatic events described in the Panchavati area. It is suggested that the palaeoclimatic and other environmental changes of the Quaternary period in the Sonata area of the Peninsula be subjected to detailed studies in the future.

Keywords

Palaeoclimate, Satpura Uplift, Epeirogeny, Ramayana, Snowy Winter, Holocene, Pleistocene, Quaternary, Narmada-Tapti Faults, Central India.

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V. S. Krishnaswamy ¹, R. N. Iyengar ², B. P. Radhakrishna ³

Affiliations
1 409, S. Lexington Avenue, White Plains, NY - 10606, US
2 Department of Civil Engineering, IISc, Bangalore - 560 0 12, IN
3 Geological Society of India, Bangalore - 560 0 19, IN

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V. S. Krishnaswamy ¹, R. N. Iyengar ²

Affiliations
1 409, South Lexington Avenue, White Plains, New York - 10606, IN
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore - 560 012, IN

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